The year 2011 highlighted ongoing challenges to global food security, from food price volatility, extreme weather shocks, and famine to unrest and conflicts. On the policy front, major devel­opments at the global and national levels both offered grounds for encouragement and pointed to areas where further action is needed.

Together these chapters provide an overview of what we know about urbanization, food security, and nutrition and point to some of the most urgent research and data needs. They also point to promising policy directions that could begin to strengthen linkages between rural and urban areas and contribute to food security and access to nutritious foods in the world’s expanding urban areas. Addressing the needs of growing ranks of urban dwellers and improving the livelihoods of smallholder producers while promoting agricultural productivity will be essential to global food security and nutrition and to moving ahead with the new sustainable development agenda.

Rural-urban linkages—including physical, economic, social, and political connections—are crucial for ending hunger and malnutrition (SDG 2) sustainably in both rural and urban areas. Rural-urban linkages also support other Sustainable Development Goals. Urban growth increases food demand and spurs dietary changes in urban areas—new demand can create opportunities for rural producers to improve their livelihoods. Broken value chains and poor coordination weaken rural-urban links and hold back progress on food security and nutrition. Investment in rural infrastructure and intermediate towns—quality rural and feeder roads, electricity, storage facilities, communications and information—can build connections and create hubs of economic activity benefiting smallholders and cities.

2016 saw important developments with potentially wide repercussions for food security and nutrition in individual countries and regions. This section offers perspectives on food policy developments across the major regions: Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Urbanization trends and related impacts on food security and nutrition are presented for each region. The individual regional sections cover many other critical topics: Acceleration of cooperation and investment in Africa to improve food security in the face of climate challenges and low commodity prices; Continuing conflict in the Middle East and North Africa, while some countries begin to face policy reform needs and realities of low oil prices; Central Asia’s promotion of agricultural diversification and regional integration to increase economic resilience; South Asia’s rapid growth and new investments and policies in the agriculture sector; Urbanization, changing diets, and regional growth in East Asia Recession in major economies of Latin America and the Caribbean along with El Niño’s effects on regional prospects.

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 <p>Recently, the strategy of spatial development in China has become more and more important.An increasing number of researches focus on the urban economic growth and the coordinated development of regions.Urban agglomeration, as an advanced spatial pattern of urban development, breaks through the barriers of administrative divisions and organically establishes the connection of different cities in the same region.Therefore, since the beginning of the new century,the progress of urban agglomeration becomes the most important content of the regional development strategy in China. There are 1 0 urban agglomerations in China. Every agglomeration has one or two central cities which have various dominant functions and always play a pivotal role. It is an important measurement of the progress of urban agglomeration to identify the influences from the central city to peripheral cities, as well as to provide an important theoretical and empirical evidence to promote the urban development and regional economic integration. The main contribution of this paper is to make a significant supplement of the empirical researches on the urban and regional economics in China, and provide a new perspective for the analysis of the development progress of urban agglomeration.Another contribution of this paper is to give suggestions to policy formulations about the urban development strategy,and to make different regional integration policies according to the distinctive characteristics of different urban agglomerations.Based on the theoretical framework of the New Economic Geography(NEG) and the New Growth Theory, this paper gives a theoretical model about the economic development level of an area which is influenced by other areas surrounding it. In the empirical part, this paper uses the municipal panel data of the year 2000-2012, and constructs a dynamic panel model to estimate the influences from the development of central city to the economic growth of peripheral cities, and uses the system GMM method to avoid the endogenous and simultaneous problems in econometric strategy. Our findings are as follows: (1) The central city shows a positive spillover effect on the economic growth of peripheral cities according to the analysis of 136 cities of the 10 urban agglomerations in China; (2) It shows an overall trend of ″down-steady-up″like″U″style between central and peripheral cities because of the time series according to classification analysis of different urban agglomerations, such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration.Beijing as the central city of this agglomeration shows a negative backwash effect on the peripheral cities before 2007 and a positive spillover effect after 2007; (3) The results are also different because of the heterogeneity of the internal structure of urban agglomerations, such as the Shandong Peninsula Urban Agglomeration, which has two central cities Jinan and Qingdao. The joint effects on the peripheral cities are more significant than the effects from single cities.In addition, we also find that the educational level of human capital has little effect on low-end manufacturing industry regions, and the size of local governments has a significant positive impact in the less developed areas where market investment is insufficient, such as in the middle and west regions of China. The innovations of this paper are as follows: Firstly, for the method of research, we construct a theoretical as well as econometric model about the economic growth of peripheral cities according to the combination of the New Growth theory and the New Economic Geography theory, and includes the spatial factors in it.Secondly,we break through the regional divisions of province or the east、middle and west districts of China, and use an urban agglomeration instead of the traditional classification unit as the obj ect of our research, then estimate the spillover or the polarization effect from central city based on the total sample including all 136 cities. Thirdly, considering the heterogeneity and time phase in different urban agglomerations we use the ten sub-samples to make empirical estimations and have a comparative analysis of the different results.</p>

 <p>当前，我国合作社出现"泛化"与"异化"的现象，这事关合作社本质属性。但现有研究鲜有从原理上论证合作社的本质属性，也未使用可靠数据检视现实中合作社是否与其本质属性相符。从交易成本理论看，合作社是为实现规模经济而产生的，本质上是要降低单个农户与外部市场打交道时产生的高交易费用，回避"公司"、"公司+农户"等组织方式的缺陷，如雇工劳动监管难题，各主体间激励不相容以及契约履行困难等问题。合作社要实现自己相对于"公司"及"公司+农户"的独特优势，须将农户在生产环节相互独立，在产品加工与流通环节相互联合；农户共同出资、共享产权、共同提供和享受服务，实现个人利益与合作社利益同一；坚持"所有者与惠顾者同一"这一本质属性。</p><p>根据这一特征，从社员对合作社财产的占有权、使用权、收益权，以及对合作社剩余提取权和剩余控制权等，采取一半以上社员达到"所有者与惠顾者同一"即实现合作社与其本质属性相符的标准，检视现实中合作社是否达到这一标准。从三个县（市）选取15家不同组织形式、规模的农民专业合作社，详细了解其各项生产成本与收益、盈余分配方式、盈余返还数量、股份结构、理事会成员结构、重大事务决策权等情况，以判断合作社是否与其本质属性相符。</p><p>15家合作社案例研究表明，86.7%普通社员没有决策权；普通社员剩余提取权弱，社员拥有"占有权"比例低；合作社盈利能力较弱，60%合作社的年净收益一半靠政策补贴。即13.3%合作社具有"所有者与惠顾者同一"的特征，86.7%合作社不具有这一特征，合作社趋利性与公司化倾向较为明显。</p><p>原因在于成员的异质性、与合作社相关的政策和制度环境。不同资源禀赋的成员对合作社决策权和产权制度安排的期待不同。大户为实现高收益预期而壮大合作社规模，但不会为吸纳普通社员让渡"决策权"；普通社员不会为争取"决策权"而放弃地租租金。大户需通过按入股份额分红方式实现对关键投入要素的控制权和收益权，普通社员资源可获得性较弱，也接受这种产权结构安排。</p><p>多种类、高收益的政策补贴助长了合作社本质属性异化。地方政府重视合作社的经济发展作用，忽略对合作社运作规范性的监管；对合作社考核过于注重数量，忽视合作社本质内涵和目标；加上扶持"假合作社"低行政成本等因素，使相关法律规章制度得不到有效执行，为合作社本质属性异化提供了条件。</p><p>政府需根据不同地域，不同发展阶段、层次及合作类型的合作社，采取差异化、动态的引导和激励机制。</p><p></p>

 <p> 改革开放以来，我国粮食生产取得巨大成绩，单产的提高功不可没。但近年来，随着城镇化的推进，粮食增产面临日益严重的土地资源约束。可以预期，未来粮食产量的增长将更加依赖于单产的提高。然而，当前我国地区间粮食单产依然存在较大差异，分析地区间单产的收敛趋势有助于理解我国的粮食生产潜能，进而有助于制定合理的粮食安全政策。现有文献主要应用生产效率的方法分析中国粮食产能，其假设前提是全国粮食生产具有相同的生产前沿函数，而忽视了区域间政策，地理以及气候等差异因素。本文基于"俱乐部收敛"（Club Convergence）的视点，从统计的角度来识别中国三大主粮单产的区域性收敛。我们利用1980年至2012年全国30个省市自治区稻谷、玉米、小麦三种主粮的单产数据，首先用传统收敛方法分析了单产收敛状况。然而，β收敛与σ收敛分析结果相互冲突，其中，β收敛结果显示三大主粮单产全国范围内均趋于收敛，然而，单产的年度变化数据表明这一结果可能需要进一步验证；与之相反，σ收敛分析则表明小麦的单产存在发散趋势，而玉米和稻谷则没有明显收敛趋势。于是，我们采用Phillips and Sul提出的俱乐部收敛方法重新研究了收敛情况，这一方法最大的优点在于允许不同的时间趋势与个体异质性，这在分析长期增长路径或者稳态水平时尤为重要。此外，当总体不存在收敛趋势，而是收敛于几个不同的稳态水平时，这种方法还可以通过统计方法识别出每个个体的收敛情况，即收敛俱乐部，避免了人为划分收敛组。经过分析，我们发现除山西省外，稻谷单产全国范围内趋于收敛；玉米单产同样在全国范围内收敛；但小麦单产则不存在总体收敛趋势，而是收敛于三个不同的俱乐部，其中，华北五省市、东北三省、华东大部、西北部分地区（北京、天津、河北、山西、内蒙古、辽宁、吉林、黑龙江、山东、安徽、江苏、浙江、福建、陕西、新疆）以及河南等16 个省区收敛于第一个俱乐部；中部和西部大部以及华东部分地区（湖北、湖南、广东、四川、甘肃、青海、宁夏、江西、上海）收敛于第二俱乐部；西南云桂黔（云南、广西、贵州）三省区收敛于第三俱乐部；西藏的小麦单产远高于其他地区，不与任何其他地区收敛。稻谷、玉米的收敛可能归因于优质高产品种的普及以及品种对生长条件要求较低，而小麦单产收敛于三个不同的稳态水平则可能是由于自然生态条件、播种品种以及投入要素的地区性差异导致的。最后，我们以"俱乐部"内最高单产为参照，测算了三种主粮历年的生产潜能。预测结果显示，实际产量与潜在产量的差距在不断缩小，小麦两种产量之间的差距下降幅度最大，2012年仅有11.74%的增产空间；三种主粮在2012年的潜在总产量为6.6万亿吨，仍比实际产量高26%；初步估计显示，未来10-20年之内，三种主粮的增产潜能会保持在10%以上。</p>

The Bulletin includes statistical data and indicators on the international trade in goods of ESCWA member countries, based primarily on national sources, with additional material provided by secondary sources. Data presented includes summary tables on overall trade, trends and share of the region in total world trade as well as data on intraregional trade and on the direction of trade of ESCWA member countries with other countries and regions during the period 2001-2005. This bilingual publication contains information in Arabic and English. Publishing Agency: United Nations (UN).

 规划必须有理论。但是，计划经济时期的理论不能作为社会主义市场经济

条件下的规划基础和依据。其他市场经济国家的规划实践与我国有很大不同，

他们在规划实践中总结的理论我们难以完全照搬。因此，需要创立和发展适应 我国社会主义市场经济的规划理论。我国的改革已经走过了 30 年的伟大历程， 30 年来，我们在规划体制改革方面进行了许多卓有成效的探索，应该可以总结 出一些规律性的内容了。 为加强规划理论研究和规划人才的培养，我们积极推进并促成国家发展改

革委与清华大学联合创办了“清华大学中国发展规划研究中心”。我们的出发点

主要有两个：一是研究中国自己的规划理论，最终能形成中国自己的发展规划

学科；二是培养人才。学科建设是一个历史性的任务，靠几个人甚至一代人都 可能完不成，而需要更多人、更长时期锲而不舍地探索和积累。 在我们的积极倡议下，清华大学依托教学优势，招收了三届发展规划方向 的公共管理硕士研究生（MPA）。该班的公共管理课程，由国家发展改革委的同 志直接参与筹划设计，一些专题也由国家发展改革委长期从事规划编制工作的

同志主讲。该书就是在各专题讲稿基础上，进一步修改完善、补充案例、更新

数据后编写的。出版该书，对于发展规划学科的建设，对于传播和普及科学的

规划理念、规划方法、规划内容，进一步推进规划体制改革，具有积极的意义， 也为今后发展规划方向 MPA 的学员提供了一本比较规范的发展规划方面的专 业教材。 

As we move into the post-2015 era of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the world faces many seemingly intractable problems. Malnutrition should not be one of them. Countries that are determined to make rapid advances in malnutrition reduction can do so, and the incentives to improve nutrition are strong. Good nutrition provides a vital foundation for human development, central to meeting our full potential. When nutrition status improves, it leads to a host of positive outcomes for individuals and families. Many more children will live to see their fifth birthdays, their growth will be less disrupted, and they will gain in height and weight. They will learn more in school because their brain function is not impaired. As a result of this positive early environment, as adults they will have better jobs and get ill less often. Older adults will age more healthily and live longer.

The Global Food Policy Report is IFPRI’s flagship publication. This year’s annual report examines major food policy issues, global and regional developments, and commitments made in 2015, and presents data on key food policy indicators. The report also proposes key policy options for 2016 and beyond to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. In 2015, the global community made major commitments on sustainable development and climate change. The global food system lies at the heart of these commitments—and we will only be able to meet the new goals if we work to transform our food system to be more inclusive, climate-smart, sustainable, efficient, nutrition- and health-driven, and business-friendly.

 The centrality of sound institutions and good governance in improving agricultural productivity and reducing rural poverty, hunger, and malnutrition has become widely recognized in recent years. Institutions are the systems of rules that constitute the environment within which policymaking, cooperation, and innovation occur. Governance was defined by the United Nations Development Programme in 1997 as “the exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels.” Strong institutions allow for more effective management of common pool resources and environmental services, while good governance facilitates technical dynamism, gender equity, risk mitigation, and inclusion of the poor in shared growth.

Although existing research highlights interventions likely to benefit the poor and improve agricultural performance, there is limited knowledge about how to create incentives for individual actors, civil society, and public administrations to actively pursue such policies. This knowledge gap is being addressed by the Strengthening Institutions and Governance (SIG) research area of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). At the heart of this research are efforts to identify what types of institutional, incentive, and accountability structures are most conducive to improving the incomes, food security, and nutrition of the poor in low-income countries.

 In the wake of the food crises of the early 1970s and the resulting World Food Conference of 1974, a group of innovators realized that food security depends not only on crop production, but also on the policies that affect food systems, from farm to table. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) was founded in 1975 and for the past four decades has worked to provide partners in donor and recipient countries with solid research and evidence on policy options. IFPRI was fortunate to have as its first board chairman, world-renowned Australian economist Sir John Crawford, who was a passionate advocate for international agricultural research and an architect of CGIAR, of which IFPRI is a member.

Agriculture and rural development play a critical role in alleviating poverty and undernutrition. The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) has focused its efforts on three pillars of food security: improving agricultural productivity, increasing rural livelihoods, and improving community resilience. This demonstrates Australia’s commitment to serving the needs of the poorest and constructing the building blocks of global food security in the long term. In 2013–2014, the Australian government’s
spending on food security is expected to total more than 316 million Australian dollars.

Working with many longstanding partners, such as the government of Australia and its Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), IFPRI’s research focuses on sustainable agricultural growth that engages the private sector, country-led strategy development, investment in agricultural research, provision of safety nets to strengthen resilience, prioritization of nutrition interventions for women and children, design of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies, and partnerships with other stakeholders in global movements, such as Scaling Up Nutrition.

IFPRI, and its partners, help to improve programs and initiatives for vulnerable people. By serving as a trusted voice on food policy issues, IFPRI works to change mindsets and provide evidence on how to improve food and nutrition security. Together, IFPRI and the Australian government support cutting-edge research and measurable targets for increasing agricultural productivity. This brochure highlights some of the key collaborations betweenIFPRI and the Australian government.

This brochure highlights key collaborations between IFPRI and the Australian government, often in partnership with other institutions.

En la actualidad, pocos son los obstáculos a los que se enfrenta la comunidad mundial que puedan compararse en magnitud con el de la malnutrición, una condición que afecta directamente a una de cada tres personas. La malnutrición se manifiesta de distintas formas: retraso en el crecimiento y el desarrollo de los niños; personas esqueléticas o propensas a las infecciones; personas con exceso de peso o con riesgo de enfermedades crónicas debido al consumo excesivo de azúcar, sal o grasa; e incluso personas con carencias de vitaminas o minerales de importancia. La malnutrición y la alimentación constituyen claramente los mayores factores de riesgo para la carga mundial de morbilidad (CMM): cada país se enfrenta a un serio problema de salud pública debido a la malnutrición. Cada año, las consecuencias económicas implican pérdidas del 11% del PIB en África y Asia, mientras que la prevención de la malnutrición representa 16 dólares estadounidenses de rentabilidad de la inversión por cada dólar gastado. En todo el mundo, los países han acordado metas en materia de nutrición, pero, a pesar de ciertos avances observados en los últimos años, el mundo está lejos de poder alcanzarlas. Este tercer informe sobre el estado de la nutrición mundial propone formas de invertir la tendencia y acabar con todas las formas de malnutrición en 2030.

For four decades, the longstanding collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has been crucial to helping developing countries attain agriculture-led economic growth. The innovative programs and strong evidence base produced through this partnership have contributed to transforming policies and investments for improved food security, nutrition, incomes, and resilience around the world.

The Global Food Policy Report is IFPRI’s flagship publication. This year’s annual report examines major food policy issues, global and regional developments, and commitments made in 2015, and presents data on key food policy indicators. The report also proposes key policy options for 2016 and beyond to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. In 2015, the global community made major commitments on sustainable development and climate change. The global food system lies at the heart of these commitments—and we will only be able to meet the new goals if we work to transform our food system to be more inclusive, climate-smart, sustainable, efficient, nutrition- and health-driven, and business-friendly.

This 2014–2015 Global Food Policy Report is the fourth in an annual series that provides a comprehensive overview of major food policy developments and events. In this report, distinguished researchers, policymakers, and practitioners review what happened in food policy in 2014 at the global, regional, and national levels, and—supported by the latest knowledge and research—explain why. This year’s report is the first to also look forward a year, offering analysis of the potential opportunities and challenges that we will face in achieving food and nutrition security in 2015.