英國史家湯恩比(Arnold Joseph Toynbee)曾提出「挑戰與回應」之論,認為民族、文化、組織與運動都有面對挑戰、陷入危機之時,回應挑戰的方式決定如何處理危機,而後者決定結果。湯恩比歸納了四種回應的方法:退回過去;對未來產生白日夢式的憧憬;自我封閉,以神秘經驗處理挑戰帶來的衝擊;直視危機,試著將之化為有利未來發展的元素。
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