數十年來,生物學家為了合作現象傷透腦筋。演化論的主流觀點就像詩人丁尼生(Alfred Lord Tennyson)的生動描述:「沾滿鮮血的獠牙與利爪。」達爾文以天擇說來闡述演化時,稱這競爭為「最激烈的生存鬥爭」。天擇說主張帶有適合性狀的個體比同伴有更多繁殖機會,因此生育較多後代。如果把這個邏輯推論到極致,我們很快就會得到這樣的結論:永遠不該幫助對手,反而要不惜投機取巧以求領先,管它是利誘還是詐騙,贏得生命競賽才是最重要的事。
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